Connecting a number of electrochemical cells in a parallel configuration includes linking the optimistic terminals of every cell collectively, and equally linking all of the unfavourable terminals. This association maintains the voltage of a single cell whereas rising the general present capability of the ability supply. For example, if two equivalent 1.5V batteries, every able to delivering 1 Ampere, are related on this method, the resultant energy supply will nonetheless present 1.5V however will now be able to delivering as much as 2 Amperes.
Such an association is essential in purposes demanding increased present draw than a single cell can safely present. It prevents over-discharge of a person cell, resulting in prolonged lifespan and extra constant efficiency of the ability supply as a complete. Traditionally, this methodology has been employed in varied purposes from powering early electrical units to modern-day power storage options, reflecting its versatility and enduring utility.
Understanding the ideas behind linking electrochemical cells on this method permits for knowledgeable selections when designing and implementing energy programs. Elements similar to cell matching, security precautions, and acceptable wiring strategies are important issues for maximizing the advantages and minimizing potential dangers related to this kind of electrical configuration. The following sections will delve into these subjects in higher element.
1. Voltage Matching
Voltage matching constitutes a elementary prerequisite for establishing a parallel battery configuration. Making certain that every one batteries possess the identical nominal voltage previous to connection mitigates the chance of circulating currents and optimizes system efficiency. The following particulars discover vital points of voltage matching on this context.
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Stopping Circulating Currents
When batteries with differing voltages are related in parallel, a present flows from the higher-voltage battery to the lower-voltage battery. This circulating present represents wasted power and might result in untimely degradation of 1 or each batteries. Correct voltage matching minimizes this phenomenon, making certain that every battery contributes equally to the general system load.
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Optimizing Battery Lifespan
Unequal voltage distribution throughout batteries in a parallel association can lead to uneven charging and discharging cycles. The battery with the decrease voltage experiences a better discharge charge, probably resulting in over-discharge and accelerated degradation. Voltage matching promotes balanced operation, extending the lifespan of all batteries within the system.
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Making certain System Effectivity
The presence of circulating currents resulting from mismatched voltages reduces the general effectivity of the battery financial institution. Power is dissipated as warmth as a result of present flowing between the batteries, fairly than being delivered to the supposed load. Voltage matching maximizes the power delivered to the load, bettering the general effectivity of the ability system.
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Mitigating Thermal Runaway Danger
Important voltage variations can create substantial present move and warmth technology. In sure battery chemistries, extreme warmth can provoke thermal runaway, a probably catastrophic occasion. Correct voltage matching is a key security precaution in stopping such occurrences.
In conclusion, exact voltage matching represents a vital step in implementing a dependable and environment friendly parallel battery system. Ignoring this precept can lead to diminished battery lifespan, decreased system effectivity, and elevated security dangers. Cautious measurement and choice of batteries with equivalent voltage traits is due to this fact important for optimum efficiency.
2. Similar Chemistry
The electrochemical composition of batteries related in parallel considerably influences the operational security and efficiency of the ensuing energy system. Using cells of the identical chemistry is a vital prerequisite for profitable parallel configuration, minimizing dangers and maximizing effectivity.
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Stopping Electrolyte Imbalance
Connecting batteries with dissimilar chemistries can result in electrolyte imbalance. Completely different chemistries exhibit various charges of electrolyte degradation and fuel technology. When mixed in parallel, the battery with the extra aggressive chemistry might speed up the deterioration of the opposite, resulting in untimely failure of your entire system. For instance, mixing a lithium-ion battery with a nickel-metal hydride battery will lead to accelerated degradation of the nickel-metal hydride battery resulting from differing cost and discharge traits.
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Mitigating Thermal Runaway Danger
Dissimilar battery chemistries possess distinctive thermal profiles and tolerances. When related in parallel, thermal runaway, a catastrophic failure mode characterised by uncontrolled temperature enhance, can happen extra readily. One battery’s thermal instability can set off a cascade impact, impacting the opposite, and probably main to fireplace or explosion. Utilizing equivalent chemistries ensures related thermal habits, lowering this danger considerably.
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Optimizing Cost and Discharge Traits
Every battery chemistry reveals a selected cost and discharge profile, together with voltage home windows and present limitations. Combining batteries with differing profiles compromises the general effectivity of the system. One battery may be overcharged whereas the opposite is undercharged, resulting in diminished lifespan and capability. Batteries of the identical chemistry will exhibit suitable cost and discharge traits, permitting for balanced operation and optimum power utilization.
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Decreasing Corrosion Potential
Electrochemical incompatibility can foster corrosion. The interior resistance, chemical reactivity, and voltage traits of batteries with distinct chemistries will fluctuate, thereby creating localized potential gradients that promote corrosion on the connection factors and terminals. Using batteries of equivalent chemistry ensures related properties, lowering corrosion and prolonging the operational lifetime of the entire battery system.
Using batteries with the identical electrochemical composition shouldn’t be merely a suggestion however a necessary requirement for connecting cells in a parallel configuration. Disregarding this precept can precipitate detrimental penalties, together with shortened battery life, diminished system efficiency, and elevated security hazards. Subsequently, adhering to the “Similar Chemistry” precept is vital when connecting batteries in parallel.
3. Equal Capability
When electrochemical cells are related in a parallel configuration, making certain that every one cells possess equal capability is an important determinant of system longevity and effectivity. Capability, measured in Ampere-hours (Ah), defines the quantity {of electrical} cost a battery can ship. Disparities on this parameter can result in suboptimal efficiency and accelerated degradation.
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Balanced Discharge Charges
Cells with unequal capability expertise imbalances of their discharge charges when supplying a load. The cell with decrease capability is subjected to a better share of its capability being utilized, resulting in deeper discharges. This can lead to diminished lifespan and elevated inside resistance. For example, a 10Ah battery related in parallel with a 5Ah battery will see the 5Ah battery discharging at twice the speed to satisfy the load demand, inflicting untimely put on.
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Stopping Reverse Charging
In instances the place one cell’s capability is considerably decrease, that cell might turn out to be absolutely discharged earlier than the others. If the load continues to attract present, the higher-capacity cells can drive present again into the depleted cell, inflicting reverse charging. That is detrimental to the depleted cell and might result in fuel technology, thermal instability, and even catastrophic failure. This impact is extra pronounced with Lithium-based batteries resulting from their sensitivity to reverse charging.
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Maximizing System Run Time
Unequal capability limits the general system runtime to that of the lowest-capacity cell. Even when different cells have remaining capability, the system will successfully shut down when the weakest cell is depleted. Consequently, the complete potential of the higher-capacity cells shouldn’t be realized, resulting in a discount within the general power storage out there. Utilizing batteries with matched capacities permits for the best utilization of the collective power storage.
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Facilitating Constant Charging
Charging parallel-connected cells with unequal capacities presents challenges. The charging present will distribute erratically, probably resulting in overcharging of the smaller-capacity cell whereas the larger-capacity cell stays undercharged. This differential charging exacerbates the imbalances over time and additional reduces the lifespan of the system. Using cells with equal capacities permits for extra uniform charging profiles and extended battery well being.
In abstract, matching cell capacities is paramount for profitable parallel battery configurations. Whereas voltage and chemistry are vital for security, equal capability is essential for optimizing the efficiency and longevity of the system, permitting for balanced cost/discharge cycles, stopping reverse charging, and maximizing general run time. Ignoring this parameter results in inefficiencies and a diminished return on funding within the energy system.
4. Correct Wiring
The implementation of a parallel battery configuration hinges critically on the execution of correct wiring strategies. The wiring infrastructure serves because the pathway for present move, and its traits immediately affect system effectivity, security, and longevity. Deficiencies in wiring can result in diminished efficiency, accelerated degradation, and potential hazards.
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Enough Wire Gauge Choice
The wire gauge, or thickness, have to be ample to deal with the anticipated present load. Inadequate gauge ends in elevated resistance, resulting in voltage drop, warmth technology, and potential fireplace hazards. For instance, utilizing 20-gauge wire to hold 20 Amperes may cause overheating and insulation failure. Choosing a gauge acceptable for the utmost present demand ensures environment friendly energy switch and security.
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Symmetrical Wiring Configuration
To make sure equal present distribution among the many parallel-connected batteries, a symmetrical wiring configuration is essential. Which means that the size and gauge of the wires connecting every battery to the frequent optimistic and unfavourable terminals needs to be as equivalent as potential. Asymmetrical wiring creates unequal resistance pathways, leading to one battery bearing a disproportionate share of the load. For example, if one battery has a considerably shorter wire size to the frequent bus bar, it’ll provide extra present, inflicting unbalanced discharge.
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Safe and Corrosion-Resistant Connections
The integrity of {the electrical} connections is paramount. Free or corroded connections enhance resistance, resulting in power loss, warmth technology, and potential arcing. Using corrosion-resistant terminals and using correct crimping or soldering strategies ensures dependable and low-resistance connections. Usually inspecting and sustaining connections prevents degradation and sustains system efficiency. A free connection can act as a resistor within the circuit, lowering out there energy and inflicting warmth.
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Correct Insulation and Safety
Wiring have to be adequately insulated to forestall brief circuits and shield in opposition to environmental components. Broken or degraded insulation can expose conductors, making a danger {of electrical} shock or fireplace. Using appropriately rated insulation supplies and implementing protecting measures, similar to conduit or cable trays, safeguards the wiring infrastructure. Moreover, pressure aid mechanisms at connection factors forestall conductor breakage resulting from vibration or motion.
The aspects of correct wiring will not be remoted issues, however fairly interconnected parts of a strong parallel battery system. Neglecting any of those points compromises the general effectiveness and security of the configuration. Adhering to stringent wiring practices ensures environment friendly power switch, balanced present distribution, and dependable operation, maximizing the advantages derived from connecting batteries in parallel.
5. Fuse Safety
Integrating fuse safety inside a parallel battery configuration is paramount for mitigating potential hazards and making certain system integrity. Fuses act as sacrificial parts, interrupting the circuit within the occasion of overcurrent situations. Their inclusion safeguards batteries, wiring, and related gear from injury ensuing from brief circuits or extreme present draw.
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Stopping Thermal Runaway Propagation
Within the occasion of a brief circuit inside one battery in a parallel financial institution, the opposite batteries will try to discharge into the fault. This could generate substantial warmth, probably resulting in thermal runaway, a catastrophic failure mode. Fuses, strategically positioned in every battery’s optimistic lead, isolate the defective battery from the remainder of the financial institution, stopping the propagation of thermal runaway. For instance, a high-current brief in a single lithium-ion battery cell may set off a cascading thermal occasion in your entire financial institution if not for particular person fuse safety.
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Defending Wiring and Connections
Overcurrent conditions may cause wiring and connections to overheat, resulting in insulation injury, melting, and potential fireplace. Fuses, chosen with acceptable present rankings, interrupt the circuit earlier than the present reaches a stage that may injury the wiring. This protects the infrastructure from thermal stress and prevents electrical fires. For example, a brief circuit downstream of the battery financial institution may trigger a sudden surge of present, shortly exceeding the wiring’s ampacity if a fuse shouldn’t be in place.
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Isolating Defective Batteries
When a battery develops an inside brief or different fault, it may draw extreme present from the opposite batteries within the parallel financial institution. This could result in untimely depletion of the wholesome batteries and potential injury to the defective one. Fuses isolate the defective battery, stopping it from draining the power of the remainder of the system. This maintains the general system performance and prevents the failure of a single cell from inflicting an entire system shutdown. If a defective cell started drawing extreme present, the fuse would open solely that cell from the circuit, preserving the remainder of the cells for operation.
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Enhancing System Security
Past element safety, fuse safety enhances the general security of the system for customers and maintainers. By stopping overcurrent conditions and mitigating the chance of fireside or explosion, fuses contribute to a safer working setting. They supply a dependable and predictable technique of disconnecting the circuit within the occasion of a fault, minimizing the potential for harm or property injury. The presence of acceptable fuses provides operators a stage of confidence that system defects will likely be safely managed, resulting in safer upkeep procedures.
Subsequently, integrating fuse safety shouldn’t be merely an elective addition however a elementary requirement for any parallel battery configuration. By safeguarding batteries, wiring, and related gear from overcurrent occasions, fuses considerably improve the reliability, security, and longevity of the ability system. Their absence introduces unacceptable dangers of element injury, fireplace, and potential harm.
6. Monitor Temperature
In parallel battery configurations, temperature monitoring is an indispensable component that considerably impacts system efficiency and security. As a result of elevated present capability afforded by the parallel association, the potential for warmth technology is amplified. Inner resistance inside particular person batteries and wiring connections contributes to warmth manufacturing, significantly beneath heavy load situations. Elevated temperatures speed up battery degradation, scale back lifespan, and, in excessive instances, can result in thermal runaway, particularly with sure battery chemistries similar to lithium-ion. Subsequently, proactive temperature monitoring permits for early detection of anomalous thermal habits, enabling well timed intervention to forestall catastrophic failures and optimize operational parameters. For example, if one battery in a parallel configuration reveals a better temperature in comparison with the others, it could point out an inside fault or an unbalanced present load, warranting fast investigation.
Efficient temperature monitoring methods embody varied approaches. Thermistors or thermocouples will be strategically affixed to particular person batteries or at vital factors inside the wiring harness to offer steady temperature readings. Information acquisition programs can log temperature information over time, permitting for development evaluation and identification of delicate deviations from regular working parameters. Moreover, subtle battery administration programs (BMS) incorporate temperature sensors and algorithms that dynamically regulate charging and discharging charges to keep up optimum temperature ranges. Automotive purposes utilizing parallel battery packs for hybrid or electrical autos exemplify this built-in strategy, the place the BMS actively regulates battery temperature to make sure efficiency and security beneath numerous driving situations. Industrial backup energy programs additionally depend on temperature monitoring to make sure that battery banks keep their capability and readiness throughout emergencies, stopping downtime and potential gear injury.
In abstract, temperature monitoring shouldn’t be merely an ancillary consideration however a vital element of connecting batteries in parallel. Its significance stems from the inherent enhance in potential warmth technology and the related dangers of accelerated degradation and thermal runaway. Implementing strong temperature monitoring programs, whether or not by way of easy thermistors or subtle BMS, permits for proactive administration of thermal situations, finally enhancing system reliability, security, and lifespan. The proactive administration of thermal situations results in elevated operational effectiveness and improved return on funding for parallel battery programs.
7. Keep away from Over-Discharge
Over-discharge poses a big risk to battery well being and longevity, significantly when a number of batteries are related in a parallel configuration. When batteries are linked on this method, the system’s capability is elevated, probably masking the diploma of discharge of any particular person cell. If one battery inside the parallel association is considerably weaker or has a decrease capability, it could be pushed into an over-discharged state by the stronger cells making an attempt to keep up the general system voltage. This reverse charging may cause irreversible injury to the over-discharged battery, resulting in capability loss, elevated inside resistance, and even thermal instability. For example, in a solar energy system using parallel battery banks, a shading occasion on one panel may trigger a disproportionate draw on one battery, probably driving it under its minimal voltage threshold if ample over-discharge safety shouldn’t be carried out.
Mitigating the dangers related to over-discharge in parallel battery programs necessitates the implementation of sturdy monitoring and safety mechanisms. Battery Administration Methods (BMS) play a vital position in monitoring particular person cell voltages and stopping any cell from falling under its protected discharge restrict. These programs can disconnect the load or provoke charging earlier than over-discharge happens. Moreover, using batteries with related capacities and inside resistances helps to make sure balanced discharge throughout the parallel financial institution, lowering the chance of particular person cells being pushed into over-discharge. Take into account electrical autos, the place subtle BMS are important for making certain that the parallel-connected battery pack is operated inside protected voltage and temperature limits, stopping each over-discharge and overcharge situations that will in any other case severely degrade battery efficiency and lifespan.
In conclusion, avoiding over-discharge shouldn’t be merely a greatest follow however a vital requirement for sustaining the well being, efficiency, and security of parallel battery configurations. The interconnected nature of parallel connections amplifies the potential penalties of over-discharge, making it important to implement complete monitoring and safety methods. Correct BMS implementation, cell balancing strategies, and cautious battery choice are all very important parts of making certain that batteries related in parallel function inside their protected limits and obtain their designed lifespan. Failing to deal with the dangers related to over-discharge can result in untimely battery failure, diminished system efficiency, and potential security hazards, undermining the advantages of parallel battery configurations.
8. Constant Connection
Dependable efficiency of batteries related in parallel essentially will depend on the institution and upkeep of constant connections. These connections, encompassing each electrical and mechanical points, immediately affect the general effectivity, security, and operational lifespan of the battery system. Any deviation from constant connection protocols introduces vulnerabilities that may compromise system integrity.
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Minimizing Resistance and Voltage Drop
Constant connection ensures minimal resistance throughout all connection factors inside the parallel battery configuration. Elevated resistance, whether or not resulting from free terminals, corrosion, or insufficient contact floor space, results in voltage drop and localized warmth technology. This uneven voltage distribution may cause imbalances in charging and discharging cycles among the many batteries, accelerating degradation and lowering system effectivity. Inconsistent connections disrupt balanced present move, forcing some batteries to work tougher than others. Instance: A corroded terminal on one battery can enhance its inside resistance, inflicting it to discharge sooner and warmth up, whereas different batteries within the parallel financial institution stay comparatively cool.
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Sustaining Mechanical Stability
A safe and secure mechanical connection is essential for sustained efficiency. Vibration, shock, or thermal growth and contraction can loosen connections over time. Free connections not solely enhance resistance but in addition introduce the chance of intermittent disconnections, resulting in erratic system habits and potential injury. Instance: In cellular purposes, similar to electrical autos or moveable energy programs, fixed vibration necessitates strong and vibration-resistant connectors to keep up constant contact. Common inspection and tightening of connections are important for making certain mechanical stability.
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Stopping Corrosion and Oxidation
Constant connection requires safety in opposition to environmental components that promote corrosion and oxidation. Corrosive substances can degrade connection surfaces, rising resistance and compromising electrical conductivity. Making use of protecting coatings, similar to dielectric grease, and utilizing corrosion-resistant supplies mitigates these results. Moreover, correct environmental sealing can forestall moisture and contaminants from reaching connection factors. Instance: Battery terminals uncovered to saltwater environments require specialised corrosion-resistant coatings and sealing to forestall fast degradation of the connection surfaces. Common cleansing and upkeep assist to take away any corrosion which will accumulate.
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Making certain Uniform Torque Software
When using bolted connections, making use of uniform torque throughout set up is vital for constant contact strain. Below-torquing ends in inadequate contact space and elevated resistance, whereas over-torquing can injury the terminals or connectors. Utilizing a calibrated torque wrench ensures that every connection is tightened to the required worth, offering constant and dependable electrical contact. Instance: Over-tightening a battery terminal can strip the threads, resulting in a free connection, whereas under-tightening can lead to inadequate contact space and elevated resistance. Adhering to producer’s really useful torque specs is crucial.
The aspects of constant connection underscore their integral position in optimizing the efficiency and longevity of parallel battery configurations. Neglecting these issues introduces vulnerabilities that may compromise system reliability and security. Implementing rigorous connection protocols, encompassing each electrical and mechanical points, ensures uniform present distribution, minimizes resistance, and protects in opposition to environmental degradation, thereby maximizing the advantages of connecting batteries in parallel. The absence of constant connection creates vulnerabilities from effectivity losses to security hazards which renders it non-negotiable for parallel battery programs.
Continuously Requested Questions
The next addresses frequent inquiries concerning the implementation of batteries related in parallel. The target is to offer clear and concise data to make sure protected and environment friendly operation.
Query 1: Is it permissible to attach batteries of various ages in parallel?
Connecting batteries of disparate ages in a parallel configuration is mostly not really useful. Older batteries usually exhibit elevated inside resistance and diminished capability in comparison with newer ones. This disparity results in an unequal distribution of present, probably overstressing the older battery and lowering the general lifespan of the battery financial institution.
Query 2: What penalties come up from utilizing completely different cable lengths to attach batteries in parallel?
Unequal cable lengths introduce differing resistances into the circuit. Batteries related with shorter cables will expertise decrease resistance, resulting in a disproportionately increased present draw. This imbalance can lead to uneven charging and discharging charges, accelerating battery degradation and lowering system effectivity. Symmetrical wiring is essential for uniform present distribution.
Query 3: How is the suitable fuse score decided for a parallel battery system?
The fuse score needs to be chosen primarily based on the utmost anticipated present draw of the system and the ampacity of the wiring. A fuse with a score barely above the utmost steady present is really useful to forestall nuisance tripping. It’s essential to seek the advice of related electrical codes and requirements to make sure ample safety.
Query 4: What precautions have to be noticed when charging batteries related in parallel?
Be sure that the charger is suitable with the battery chemistry and voltage. Monitor the charging course of to forestall overcharging or undercharging. A battery administration system (BMS) is extremely really useful to make sure balanced charging and stop particular person cells from exceeding their voltage limits. Keep away from utilizing trickle chargers until particularly designed for parallel configurations.
Query 5: What signifies {that a} battery in a parallel financial institution has failed?
Indicators of a failing battery embrace a big drop in voltage in comparison with the opposite batteries, extreme warmth technology, or bodily swelling of the battery casing. Common voltage measurements and visible inspections are important for early detection of battery failures. A failing battery needs to be promptly remoted and changed to forestall additional injury to the system.
Query 6: Can completely different manufacturers of batteries be related in parallel?
Whereas technically possible, connecting completely different manufacturers of batteries is discouraged until they’ve equivalent specs for voltage, capability, chemistry, and inside resistance. Variations in these parameters can result in imbalances in present distribution and accelerated battery degradation. Utilizing batteries from the identical producer and mannequin is really useful for optimum efficiency and longevity.
In abstract, connecting batteries in parallel requires cautious consideration of assorted components to make sure security, effectivity, and longevity. Adherence to greatest practices concerning battery choice, wiring, safety, and monitoring is crucial for maximizing the advantages of this configuration.
The following part will delve into troubleshooting frequent points encountered in parallel battery programs.
Important Suggestions for Parallel Battery Connections
The next encapsulates vital tips for successfully and safely implementing a parallel battery configuration. Adherence to those suggestions is paramount for optimum system efficiency and longevity.
Tip 1: Prioritize Voltage Matching. Earlier than connecting batteries, meticulously confirm that every possesses an equivalent nominal voltage. Voltage discrepancies induce circulating currents, resulting in power wastage and accelerated battery degradation.
Tip 2: Make use of Similar-Chemistry Batteries. Mixing completely different battery chemistries (e.g., Lithium-ion and Nickel-Steel Hydride) introduces incompatibilities that can lead to electrolyte imbalance, thermal runaway, and compromised charging traits.
Tip 3: Guarantee Equal Capability Scores. Batteries related in parallel ought to possess the identical Ampere-hour (Ah) score. Disparities in capability result in uneven discharge charges, probably inflicting over-discharge of lower-capacity batteries and lowering general system runtime.
Tip 4: Implement Correct Wiring Strategies. Make the most of wiring with an ample gauge to deal with the anticipated present load. Make use of symmetrical wiring configurations to make sure uniform present distribution among the many batteries, avoiding localized hotspots.
Tip 5: Combine Fuse Safety. Set up fuses in every battery’s optimistic result in isolate defective cells and stop the propagation of thermal runaway within the occasion of a brief circuit. Choose fuse rankings acceptable for the utmost steady present.
Tip 6: Implement a Battery Administration System. Combine a Battery Administration System (BMS) to observe particular person cell voltages, temperatures, and currents. A BMS offers vital safety in opposition to overcharge, over-discharge, and thermal imbalances, optimizing battery well being and lifespan.
Tip 7: Usually Monitor Temperature. Make use of temperature sensors to repeatedly monitor battery temperatures. Elevated temperatures speed up battery degradation. Implement cooling mechanisms as needed to keep up optimum working temperatures.
Tip 8: Safe and Examine Connections Usually. Guarantee all connections are safe, corrosion-free, and tightened to the producers specs. Periodic inspections forestall free connections that result in elevated resistance and diminished system efficiency.
Implementing these greatest practices considerably improves the reliability and security of connecting batteries in parallel. Adherence to those ideas ensures balanced operation, prolonged battery lifespan, and maximized system efficiency.
The following sections will discover additional points and potential challenges related to parallel battery configurations.
Find out how to Join Batteries in Parallel
The previous dialogue has comprehensively addressed the multifaceted points of easy methods to join batteries in parallel, underscoring the vital significance of meticulous planning and execution. From voltage matching and chemistry issues to wiring strategies, fuse safety, and ongoing monitoring, every component contributes considerably to the security, effectivity, and longevity of the ensuing energy system. Neglecting any of those parts introduces potential vulnerabilities that may compromise system efficiency and security.
As power calls for proceed to evolve, the flexibility to successfully implement parallel battery configurations stays a significant ability. A radical understanding of those ideas empowers engineers, technicians, and end-users to assemble strong and dependable energy programs. The cautious utility of the introduced data serves as a basis for reaching optimized power storage options and underscores the enduring relevance of this elementary electrical idea.
